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As you read an article you mark (highlight) the limitations and positive points. Please note in the following sample the red font implies negative points and the blue font implies positive points. For example, I highlighted the year 1967 in red because the reference is too old.

The Relationship Between Health and Stress

The relationship between the number of stressful life events and the incidence of illnesses.

Abstract

Our research group conducted a study of the relationship between health and stress. We investigated the results of a previous study done by Holmes and Rahe (1967). Their work related the total number of stressful life events experienced by individuals during one year to fluctuations in their personal health. Based on the study, it has been predicted that more illnesses will be reported among those who score higher on the Life Events Scale than those who have experienced fewer stressful events. Our research group distributed copies of the Student Life Events Scale (Reference) and a health inventory (developed by?) to 25 undergraduate students. The scores of the questionnaires were evaluated and analyzed. Our results did not demonstrate a strong correlation, however, we feel this was an effect of experimental error. The study did exhibit some degree of connection between health and stress, and research on past experiments has indeed supported the relationship.

The relationship between health and stress is an area in the field of psychology that has been the object of much attention. (Why?) It has been logically reasoned that as the amount of stressful life events increases, an individual's health is adversely affected. Many studies have been conducted in the past to prove that the relationship exists. Several support the hypothesis, but there are also some studies that have been conducted to challenge it or have simply failed to support it.
Holmes and Rahe (1967) conducted a study in which a large group of people were asked to assign points to different life events according to how much adjustment each event required. They then related the total stress points reported to the individual's health. According to the results, it was quite apparent that the greater the number of stress points, the greater the incidence of illness. (Explain more about the results, e.g. the sample, the mean and SD of stress and illness, the kinds of illnesses and stressors)

The study by Holmes and Rahe (Reference) ignited an interest in the health and stress topic, and recently, quite a few studies have been done. In one related study by Cohen, Tyrrell, and Smith (1993), volunteers were asked to report all stressful life events that occurred during the previous year. Next, they were administered nose drops containing the common cold virus. (When introduce a new study try to explain the difference e.g. this one is an experimental while the Holmes and Rahe was survey). Those participants who were experiencing a great deal of stress were more likely to contract a cold. Rawson, Bloomer, and Kendall (1994) distributed four surveys and questionnaires to 184 undergraduate students: the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Reference), the Life Expectancy Survey (Reference), the North American Depression Inventory (Reference), and a health questionnaire (developed by?). The results of this supported the hypothesis that stress, anxiety, depression, and physical illness are interrelated. Weidner, Kohlman, Dolzauer, and Burns (1996) examined the health behaviors of college students during times of high stress, for example, midterm week. The researchers observed that the health behaviors of the students deteriorated. The students exercised less, ate fewer nutritious food, and made less of an effort to avoid substances such as drugs and alcohol. (what was their conclusion, what is your conclusion, can we conclude that stress and health are indirectly related e.g. less exercise?)
There is an interdisciplinary science known as psychoneuroimmunology devoted specifically to the affects of psychological stress on the immune system. In this field it is a common assumption that stress suppresses the immune system thus causing vulnerability to stress. (this is another study that shows stress and health are indirectly related). In a study by Evans, Clow, and Hucklebridge (1997) a contradiction to this assumption was observed. Immediately after the introduction of a stressor, participants actually showed signs of enhanced immunity. Overall, however, the immune systems of the participants exhibited decreased immunity. (How do they/you justify this?) In general, experiments done in the past have supported a few basic premises. Environmental stressors are linked to stress. Health can be affected by stressful life events. Severity of chronic illness is linked to stress. Also stress has a negative effect on the immune system.
Our research group conducted a study similar to that of Holmes and Rahe(Reference). Our purpose was to find a relationship between the amount of stressful life events experienced by college students and their general health. Based on previous work done in this area, we reasoned that as the number of stressors in one's life increased, the health of that individual would decrease.

Method

Sample
We conducted a correlational study in which we attempted to determine whether, and to what extent, different variables (stress and health) are related to each other. Careful observations of each variable were made (what does it mean?), and then a statistical analysis was performed to determine the extent of correlation between variables. The design included a single group. (This part should go to design or procedure & should explain how (in detail) they evaluated the two variables e.g. did they do it during final or on a holiday? ) Twenty-five undergraduate college students participated in the study. These participants were average male and female college students. They were selected since college students experience a significant amount of stress caused by academics, social life, and a variety of other stressors (Proof?). They were randomly recruited by members of the research group. The participants were representative of the population (only 25 students? from how many in population?) since they were a random sample of typical college students who experience stress.
The ethical treatment and anonymity of each participant was ensured. Each participant was presented with an informed consent contract. In this contract, the participant was briefly informed about what will take place in the experiment. They were notified that their participation was to be strictly voluntary, and that they may have withdrawn from the experiment at any time without prejudice or penalty. The contract guaranteed that the participants' responses would remain anonymous. Finally, the contract was signed by the participant and returned to the experimenter.

The Questionnaires
The apparatus consisted of two measures in this experiment. The first was the Student Life Events Scale (Reference, Reliability, validity, Mean, SD,...more information. & should explain the questions or mention that a copy of the questionnaire is attached in appendix)
The students were asked to indicate the events they had experienced in the last six months or that they were likely to experience in the next six months. The events listed include many stressors such as death of a close family member, divorce between parents, and change of major. The second measure was the Health Inventory (if it is a well known test should give Reference, Reliability, validity, Mean, SD,...more information). The students were asked to indicate age and gender. They were then asked to rate the extent to which they experienced various health problems during the past year, from no problem (0) to significant problem (3) (is this your Health Inventory? If yes this is a very weak measure of health problem if not why did you ask this question? & how did you used it in your analysis?)

The procedure was executed by distributing the questionnaires. Each member of the research group gave out the questionnaires to five different students. After the consent form was signed and the measures completed, they were analyzed. The results were thoroughly examined and explained. (this should go to design or procedure)

Results
The data collected showed that the mean, or average, score on the health Inventory was 14.32. The median, which is a measure of central tendency, was 13.00. The standard deviation from the mean score was 9.64. The minimum score was 1.00 and the maximum score was 42.00. The mean score on the Student Life Events Scale was 420.1 and the median was 405.0. The standard deviation from the mean was 212.4. The minimum score was 76.0 and the maximum score was 1144.0. The correlation coefficient (Pearson, Spearman, phi,...?) obtained from our data (between what and what?) was 0.289. This positive variable indicates that as stress increases, health increases (Wrong Conclusion, illness increases not health) . However, the farther the distance of the coefficient from 0.00, the greater the relationship between the two variables. Since 1.00 represents the strongest correlation, our results did not strongly support a relationship between health and stress (see attached graph). We predicted a strong relationship between these two variables, but only a slight one was observed .(This goes to conclusions)

Conclusions & Discussion
Our experiment certainly did not indicate clear-cut results. Yet, it can support some of the previous research demonstrating a relationship between health and stress since there was positive correlation. It did not altogether fail to show a relationship, and does not coincide with past research designed to challenge the correlation. (should compare the correlation coefficients)
We think that the main reason for this finding is that Our study was not free of limitations.

(First Justification) Reliability is the extent to which any measuring device, such as a psychological test, yields the same result each time it is applied to the same quantity. We did not test for this consistency since each questionnaire was administered to each participant only once. Validity is the extent to which a test actually measures what it is intended to measure. Our experiment demonstrated a degree of content validity because the items on each questionnaire were related in a straightforward manner to health or stress.(How did you measure the content validity). Experiments similar to ours have been done which demonstrate content validity.(Reference)
Another explanation for the results of our experiment could be that there was a great deal of experimental error in the measurement. One type of error may be found in the test itself. (Second Justification) Certain items on the questionnaire could be considered too broad, such as dental problems, thus affecting the participant's response to that particular item. (Third Justification) Other age groups could have been observed. (Fourth Justification) Also, the participants could have been chosen more carefully to ensure a more equal distribution of males and females. (did not explain the number of male and female in the sample part) Another form of error is caused by the experimenter. (Fifth Justification) The attitude of the experimenter towards the experiment may have affected the participant's responses. Another (In other words) possibility is that the experimenter may have tried to influence the participants to respond in a manner that is consistent with the predictions of the experiment (HOW?). Lastly (therefore), the participants may have contributed as a source of error. (Sixth Justification) The participants may not have taken the experiment seriously and responded randomly to the items (Why?). They may have exhibited dishonesty in their responses due to the personal nature of some of the items (which items how and when did you realize this?).
The study of health and stress can be applied to everyday life. We encounter stress on a daily basis, and unless we live a charmed life, we often suffer from some form of illness. In learning more about the relationship between health and stress we can discover ways to improve our general well-being, and live healthier, less stressful lives. (goes to the beginning- importance of the problem) Research in this area has indicated the possibility that stress may be combated, thus improving health conditions. (References & Explain more) A scientific basis for this is necessary, however. It is quite likely that future research it this area will continue because of the great benefits it may contribute to people in today's stressful life.(Your Suggestions)

References
Cohen, S., Tyrrell, D. A., & Smith, A. P. (1993). Negative life events, perceived stress, negative affect, and susceptibility to the common cold. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 131-140.

Evans, P., Clow, A., & Hucklebridge, F. (1997, July). Stress and the immune system. The Psychologist, 303-307.

Holmes, T. H., & Rahe, R. H. (1967). The social readjustment rating scale. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11, 213-218.

Rawson, H. E., Bloomer, K., & Kendall, A. (1994). Stress, anxiety, depression, and physical illness in college students. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 155, 321-330.

Weidner, G., Kohlmann, C. W., Dotzauer, E., & Burns, L. R. (1996). The effects of academic stress on health behaviors in young adults. Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal, 9, 123-133.